Smoking

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Cohort study
Never smoker = reference; current smoking ~2.18–2.81× mortality in large cohorts; former smokers can approach never-smoker risk after prolonged cessation
Causal status: Causal support strong; mortality evidence mostly prospective
Reliability / bias notes: Self-report; pack-years and cessation timing matter; reverse causation can affect recent quitters
Banks et al · BMC Med · 2015 · PMID 25857449
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